Answers

1. Glucagon is a important hormone which is involved in the metabolism of:

CARBOHYDRATES

2. Often described as having the opposite effect of insulin, which instructs the cells of the body to take in glucose from the blood:

GLUCAGON

3. It is where the hormone is synthesized and secreted, which are located in the endocrine portion of the pancreas:

ALPHA CELLS

4. Give the main function of glucagon.

GLUCAGON HELPS MAINTAIN THE LEVEL OF GLUCOSE IN THE BLOOD

5. Pathway by which non-hexose substrates such as amino acids are converted to glucose.

GLUCONEOGENESIS

6-8. Give three conditions associated with decrease secretion of glucagon.

-SOMATOSTATIN
-INSULIN
-INCREASED FREE FATTY ACIDS AND KETOACIDS INTO THE BLOOD

9. A heterotrimeric protein with α, β, and γ subunits.

G PROTEINS

10. Define glycogenolysis.

Is the catabolism of glycogen by removal of a glucose monomer through cleavage with inorganic phosphate to produce glucose-1-phosphate.

11- 15.
A 34 year old women came to the hospital today with her chief complains of frequent headaches, increase hunger and heavy thirst. She also complained about her vision sometimes blurs. She also said that she easily gets tired. So the doctor asked her to under go some laboratory test to know her exact condition about the symptoms she is experiencing.

TYPE 2 DIABETES MELLITUS

16- 20.
A 30 year old male appears to have red-brown skin rashes. He complains about having a smooth texture of his tongue, and also he is experiencing lip inflammation. In his last laboratory findings his red blood cells are below normal range while his white blood cells are above the normal range, which may indicate a condition of anemia. To further explore his condition he was advised by the doctor to have another laboratory test.

GLUCAGONOMA SYNDROME

Quiz

ATTENTION MT-IV!!!

1. Glucagon is a important hormone which is involved in the metabolism of:
2. Often described as having the opposite effect of insulin, which instructs the cells of the body to take in glucose from the blood:
3. It is where the hormone is synthesized and secreted, which are located in the endocrine portion of the pancreas:
4. Give the main function of glucagon.
5. Pathway by which non-hexose substrates such as amino acids are converted to glucose.
6-8. Give three conditions associated with decrease secretion of glucagon.
9. A heterotrimeric protein with α, β, and γ subunits.
10. Define glycogenolysis.

11- 15.
A 34 year old women came to the hospital today with her chief complains of frequent headaches, increase hunger and heavy thirst. She also complained about her vision sometimes blurs. She also said that she easily gets tired. So the doctor asked her to under go some laboratory test to know her exact condition about the symptoms she is experiencing.

16- 20.
A 30 year old male appears to have red-brown skin rashes. He complains about having a smooth texture of his tongue, and also he is experiencing lip inflammation. In his last laboratory findings his red blood cells are below normal range while his white blood cells are above the normal range, which may indicate a condition of anemia. To further explore his condition he was advised by the doctor to have another laboratory test.

Glucagon

Glucagon

Glucagon is an important hormone that is involved in the metabolism of carbohydrates. It is produced by the pancreas, which is released when the level of glucose in the blood is low. This will cause the liver to convert the stored glycogen into glucose and released into the bloodstream. Glucagon is often described as having the opposite effect of insulin, which instructs the cells of the body to take in glucose from the blood. Glucagon also stimulates the release of insulin, so that newly available glucose in the bloodstream can be taken up and used by insulin-depende.

Production of Glucagon

The hormone is synthesized and secreted from alpha cells of the islets of Langerhans, which are located in the endocrine portion of the pancreas. In rodents, the alpha cells are located in the outer rim of the islet. Human islet structure is much less segregated, and alpha cells are distributed throughout the islet.

Functions

Glucagon helps maintain the level of glucose in the blood by binding to glucagon receptors on hepatocytes, causing the liver to release glucose stored in the form of glycogen through a process known as glycogenolysis. Glucagon stimulates breakdown of glycogen stored in the liver. blood glucose levels are high, large amounts of glucose are taken up by the liver. Under the influence of insulin, much of this glucose is stored in the form of glycogen. Later, when blood glucose levels begin to fall, glucagon is secreted and acts on hepatocytes to activate the enzymes that depolymerize glycogen and release glucose. As these stores become depleted, glucagon then encourages the liver to synthesize additional glucose by gluconeogenesis. Glucagon activates hepatic gluconeogenesis. Gluconeogenesis is the pathway by which non-hexose substrates such as amino acids are converted to glucose. As such, it provides another source of glucose for blood. This is especially important in animals like cats and sheep that don't absorb much if any glucose from the intestine - in these species, activation of gluconeogenic enzymes is the chief mechanism by which glucagon does its job. This glucose is released into the bloodstream. Both of these mechanisms lead to glucose release by the liver, preventing the development of hypoglycemia. Glucagon also appears to have a minor effect of enhancing lipolysis of triglyceride in adipose tissue, which could be viewed as an addition means of conserving blood glucose by providing fatty acid fuel to most cells.

Regulatory Mechanism

Increase secretion of glucagon is caused by the following:

· Decreased plasma glucose

· Increased catecholamines- norepinephrine and epinephrine

· Increased plasma amino acids (to protect from hypoglycemia if an all protein meal is consumed)

· Sympathetic nervous system

· Acetylcholine· Cholecystokinin


Decreased secretion of glucagon is caused by the following:

· Somatostatin

· Insulin

· Increased free fatty acids and ketoacids into the blood

Mechanism of Action

Glucagon binds to the glucagon receptor, a G protein-coupled receptor located in the plasma membrane. The conformation change in the receptor activates G proteins, a heterotrimeric protein with α, β, and γ subunits. When the G protein interacts with the receptor, it undergoes a conformational change that results in the GDP molecule, that was bound to the α subunit, to be replaced with a GTP molecule. This substitution results in the α subunit releasing from the β and γ subunit. The alpha subunit specifically activates the next enzyme in the cascade, adenylate cyclase.

Adenylate cyclase manufacture cAMP (cyclical AMP) which activates protein kinase A (cAMP-dependent protein kinase). This enzyme in turn activates phosphorylase kinase, which in turn, phosphorylates glycogen phosphorylase, converting into the active form called phosphorylase A. Phosphorylase A is the enzyme responsible for the release of glucose-1-phosphate from glycogen polymers.

Normal Value: The normal range is 50 to 100 pg/ml.

References:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glucagon

http://www.vivo.colostate.edu/hbooks/pathphys/endocrine/pancreas/glucagon.html